Pierre Klossowski's career in philosophy is a brief but significant intervention into the manner in which the connections between desire, identity, and meaning are thought. Although Klossowski's influence on much of what is called French “post-structuralism” or “post-modernism” is frequently noted, Klossowski's development of the motif of the simulacrum is rarely traced in its proper context. Through readings of the texts of the Marquis de Sade, Georges Bataille, and Friedrich Nietzsche, as well as his own ruminations on the polytheism of (...) the ancient Roman cult of Diana, Klossowski constructs a critique not only of the identity of the self but also of the supposed unity of reason and rational signs. Klossowski's critique demonstrates how meaningful discourse is produced from the basis of incommunicable affects, which project images in consciousness that, only then, are able to take the form of iterable simulacra. Our “gregarious” discourse in language is, thus, formed only indirectly from the affects and acquires its supposed unity only as it fails to express those affects. (shrink)

The debate about the ethical implications of Artificial Intelligence dates from the 1960s :741–742, 1960; Wiener in Cybernetics: or control and communication in the animal and the machine, MIT Press, New York, 1961). However, in recent years symbolic AI has been complemented and sometimes replaced by Neural Networks and Machine Learning techniques. This has vastly increased its potential utility and impact on society, with the consequence that the ethical debate has gone mainstream. Such a debate has primarily focused on principles—the (...) ‘what’ of AI ethics —rather than on practices, the ‘how.’ Awareness of the potential issues is increasing at a fast rate, but the AI community’s ability to take action to mitigate the associated risks is still at its infancy. Our intention in presenting this research is to contribute to closing the gap between principles and practices by constructing a typology that may help practically-minded developers apply ethics at each stage of the Machine Learning development pipeline, and to signal to researchers where further work is needed. The focus is exclusively on Machine Learning, but it is hoped that the results of this research may be easily applicable to other branches of AI. The article outlines the research method for creating this typology, the initial findings, and provides a summary of future research needs. (shrink)

Over the last decade, the increased use of work teams within organizations has been one of the most influential and far-reaching trends to shape the business world. At the same time, corporations have continued to struggle with increased unethical employee behavior. Very little research has been conducted that specifically examines the developmental aspects of employee ethical decision-making in a team environment. This study examines the impact of a team leader’s perceived integrity on his or her subordinates’ behavior. The results, which (...) came from a survey of 245 MBA students functioning for 2 years in a work team environment, indicate an interaction between leader integrity and team member ethical intentions. (shrink)

In this article, we explore how deep brain stimulation (DBS) devices designed to “close the loop”—to automatically adjust stimulation levels based on computational algorithms—may risk taking the individual agent “out of the loop” of control in areas where (at least apparent) conscious control is a hallmark of our agency. This is of particular concern in the area of psychiatric disorders, where closed-loop DBS is attracting increasing attention as a therapy. Using a relational model of identity and agency, we consider whether (...) DBS designed for psychiatric regulation may require special attention to agency. To do this, we draw on philosophical work on relational identity and agency, connecting it with reports from people using first-generation DBS devices for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. We suggest a way to extend a notion of relational agency to encompass neural devices. (shrink)

In an effort to promote more theoretically incisive research regarding the specifically sociological aspects of addiction, this article critically discusses three prominent theoretical paradigms for the study of addiction - neurology, learning theory and symbolic interaction. Neurological theories and learning theories are found to inadequately provide for the role of culturally transmitted meanings in the addiction process. While symbolic interactionist theories have been centrally concerned with meaning, they have failed to theorize how issues of meaning might figure in the addict's (...) inevitable subjective estrangement from his or her drug-related activities. This stems from their failure to appreciate the reality of non-symbolic meaning, or meaningful experience that manifests pre-reflectively, at the level of our immediate bodily encounter with reality. The article concludes by suggesting that sociological students of addiction adopt a more thoroughly praxiological orientation to meaningful experience, so as to overcome the analytic limitations inherent in the antinomy between biological reductionism and disembodied cognitivism. (shrink)

This study investigates the processes involved in the shaping of a society's economic ethos. The discussion of ethics and economics has a very long history across multiple disciplines. The founder of modern economics, Adam Smith, likewise had a keen interest in this topic. However, with the development of economic science, scholarly assessment has shifted toward positive analysis while normative analysis has been left mainly to philosophers. By utilizing the newly developed morality of profit-making scale, the authors sought to understand how (...) respondents' economic ethical worldview shifts over time. Specifically, we theorized that the news media's copious negative coverage of the gasoline price crisis of 2006 would significandy impact individuals' MPM worldview. The results show that respondents' explicit attitudes toward MPM were significantly impacted. However, respondents' more deeply held, implicit economic ethical worldview was only slightly impacted. The authors argue that only patient, long-term explanation and argumentation can permanently affect a society's economic ethos. Implications and future research directions for business researchers are oudined. (shrink)

Family members can provide crucial support to individuals participating in clinical trials. In research on the “newest frontier” of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)—the use of DBS for psychiatric conditions—family member support is frequently listed as a criterion for trial enrollment. Despite the significance of family members, qualitative ethics research on DBS for psychiatric conditions has focused almost exclusively on the perspectives and experiences of DBS recipients. This qualitative study is one of the first to include both DBS recipients and their (...) family members as interview participants. Using dyadic thematic analysis—an approach that takes both the individuals and the relationship as units of analyses—this study analyzes the complex ways in which family relationships can affect DBS trial participation, and how DBS trial participation in turn influences family relationships. Based on these findings, we propose ways to improve study designs to better take family relationships into account, and better support family members in taking on the complex, essential roles that they play in DBS trials for psychiatric conditions. (shrink)

Persons who are dangerous and legally responsible, but who have not yet committed any currently recognised criminal offence, fall within the gap left between the domains of criminal justice and civil commitment. Many jurisdictions operate legal regimes that permit the detention of such persons in order to prevent the occurrence of anticipated criminal harms. These regimes often either fail to respect the principle of proportionality or contradictorily treat a dangerous offender as both legally responsible and not responsible at the same (...) time. In response to these problems, a number of preventive detention models have been proposed. Retributivist models seek to prevent the occurrence of anticipated criminal harms by requiring blame on the dangerous person’s part in order to warrant detention. However, these models are ill-equipped to deal with the problem of coextensiveness; i.e., they struggle to comprehensively reconcile proportionality in punitive sentencing with the period over which dangerous persons remain dangerous and during which one might therefore want them to be incapacitated. In order to achieve comprehensive incapacitation of dangerous persons for the duration of their dangerousness, retributivist models are forced to abandon their fidelity to proportionality in punitive sentencing, thereby losing themselves in the process. Accordingly, if the practice of preventive detention can be justified at all, such justification will not be of a retributivist character. (shrink)

Edward S. Small _Direct Theory: Experimental Film/Video as Major Genre_ Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-8093-1920-9 122 pp.

DBS Think Tank IX was held on August 25–27, 2021 in Orlando FL with US based participants largely in person and overseas participants joining by video conferencing technology. The DBS Think Tank was founded in 2012 and provides an open platform where clinicians, engineers and researchers can freely discuss current and emerging deep brain stimulation technologies as well as the logistical and ethical issues facing the field. The consensus among the DBS Think Tank IX speakers was that DBS expanded in (...) its scope and has been applied to multiple brain disorders in an effort to modulate neural circuitry. After collectively sharing our experiences, it was estimated that globally more than 230,000 DBS devices have been implanted for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. As such, this year’s meeting was focused on advances in the following areas: neuromodulation in Europe, Asia and Australia; cutting-edge technologies, neuroethics, interventional psychiatry, adaptive DBS, neuromodulation for pain, network neuromodulation for epilepsy and neuromodulation for traumatic brain injury. (shrink)

The present study concerns the issue of meaning in contemporary continental philosophy. In particular, it develops the two accounts of meaning offered by Heidegger and Levinas, each of whom presents us with a differing break from Husserl. As a first attempt to name the difference between these three thinkers, one could say that Husserl gives us an epistemological notion of meaning; whereas Heidegger gives us an ontological account, and Levinas gives us an ethical account. We will refine and reformulate this (...) division in relation to the issues of each chapter. ;We will thus see how both Heidegger and Levinas develop their separate notions in relation to Husserl's own revolutionary approach to the question of meaning. Whereas Husserl both replaced the term "experience" with the term "intuition" and gave a compelling account of the "prepredicative" roots of the meaningful, Heidegger advances the articulation of such a prepredicative realm of meaning even further than Husserl. He did so, however, in a way that ends up displacing Husserl's notion of intuition. This is the move from Husserl's account of phenomenological intuition to Heidegger's own notion of a more hermeneutic phenomenology . ;I will show how Heidegger articulates an account of meaning as that upon which any projection of understanding takes shape. Meaning becomes a quasi-transcendental, non-subjective notion of that which makes possible the disclosure of any "world." Levinas, on the other hand, offers an account of meaning---in intended opposition to Heidegger---as located primarily in the ethical exposure at the heart of language: in the "face-to-face" relation of Same and Other. He further develops his notion of meaning in terms of the notion of the saying and the said. Both Heidegger and Levinas give us a non-intentional account of the meaningful. For Heidegger it takes the form of a non-intentional background that makes possible both the "worldhood of the world" and the possibilities of Dasein . For Levinas, the meaningful is thought in terms of an interpersonal, quasi-ethical face to face relation between persons exposed to the vulnerability, obligation, and height of an "Other" in what he calls the "saying.". (shrink)

On Simone Weil’s “Pythagorean” view, mathematics has a mystical significance. In this paper, the nature of this significance and the coherence of Weil’s view are explored. To sharpen the discussion, consideration is given to both Rush Rhees’ criticism of Weil and Vance Morgan’s rebuttal of Rhees. It is argued here that while Morgan underestimates the force of Rhees’ criticism, Rhees’ take on Weil is, nevertheless, flawed for two reasons. First, Rhees fails to engage adequately with either the assumptions underlying Weil’s (...) religious conception of philosophy or its dialectical method. Second, Rhees’ reading of Weil reflects an anti‐Platonist conception of mathematics his justification of which is unsound and whose influence impedes recognition of the coherence of Weil’s position. (shrink)

This study utilizes an exploratory research design to investigate the influence of historical socialism and communism on the shaping of a society’s economic ethos. The discussion of ethics and economics has a very long history across multiple disciplines including the founder of modern economics, Adam Smith. However, with the growth of economic science, academic consideration has shifted toward positive analysis while normative analysis has been left mainly to philosophers. By utilizing the newly developed Morality of Profit-Making scale, the authors sought (...) to understand how historical socialism and communism influences respondents’ economic ethical worldview utilizing an exploratory research design. Data were collected from respondents in the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Slovakia, Serbia, Poland, and Hungary. (shrink)

"Missouri's return to prominence among the ranks of college football teams is chronicled in this account of the Tigers' 2007 and 2008 seasons"--Provided by publisher.

This response considers how Friesen’s account of simulation helps us to think through the situation of politics under technological conditions. The alleviation of material and corporeal risks entailed in simulated dissection is compared to the manner in which emerging media technologies facilitate experiences of political participation that are evacuated of the burdens of engagement. This dynamic is finally attributed not to digital mediation itself, but to its operation under the sign of simulation.

This response considers how Friesen’s account of simulation helps us to think through the situation of politics under technological conditions. The alleviation of material and corporeal risks entailed in simulated dissection is compared to the manner in which emerging media technologies facilitate experiences of political participation that are evacuated of the burdens of engagement. This dynamic is finally attributed not to digital mediation itself, but to its operation under the sign of simulation.

Over 200 lawsuits were filed against the Hertz rental car company by former customers who were arrested as a result of the company’s poor inventory control system and its implementation of two business practices which led to the filing of unsubstantiated stolen car reports with police. According to a whistleblower, these practices essentially meant Hertz was using police “as a repo company and the court system as a collection company” (News Nation 2022, 4:24). Consequences to the individuals who were falsely (...) charged with theft included financial hardship, job loss, reputational damage, child custody problems, the trauma of arrest sometimes at gunpoint, and the traumatic experience of being jailed. This case study calls for students to analyze the company’s actions from the perspectives of ethical theories and decision making, as well as corporate social responsibility. (shrink)

The later Wittgenstein’s approach to philosophical inquiry has influenced a number of philosophers who have reflected on the significance of evil for a Christianview of creation. The strengths and shortcomings of this influence are considered here, with particular attention to the work of D. Z. Phillips. Wittgenstein’s legacyemerges as a decidedly mixed blessing. On the one hand, a sensitive analysis of the religious use of language reveals the anthropomorphic confusion inherent in attempts to depict God as acting, or as failing (...) to act, for morally sufficient reasons. On the other, a sharp distinction between the natural and the spiritual domains, and the opposition to metaphysics with which it is associated, obscure rather than assist the search for understanding. By way of contrast, the paper concludes with a discussion of Simone Weil’s (profoundly metaphysical) conception of Christ’s mediation between creature and Creator; a conception which points the way to a resolution of the intellectual tension to which evil gives rise in the order of creation. (shrink)

A sharp distinction between religion and science is, it is argued here, implicit in Rush Rhees's thought. This distinction is, moreover, underpinned by a view of philosophy as purely descriptive, which Rhees shares with Wittgenstein. The first half of this paper criticises both the distinction and this view of philosophy. The second half is constructive rather than critical. A pattern of reasoning in religion is explored, which offers a possibility of insight to those afflicted by the tragic and premature loss (...) of loved ones; a pattern of a kind which is effectively denied by Rhees. Logical relations between this reasoning in religion and reasoning in physics are then discussed, which lend further support to the earlier critical arguments. These relations also exhibit aspects of the coherence of the conception of the world as a divinely created Cosmos, which is consistent with classical theism. (shrink)

This article analyses Camille Henrot’s 2013 film Grosse Fatigue in relation to the histories of hypermedia and modes of interaction with the World Wide Web. It considers the development of non-hierarchical systems for the organisation of information, and uses Grosse Fatigue to draw comparisons between the Web, the natural history museum and the archive. At stake in focusing on the way in which information is organised through hypermedia is the question of subjectivity, and this article argues that such systems are (...) made ‘user-friendly’ by appearing to accommodate intuitive processes of information retrieval, reflecting the subject back to itself as autonomous. This produces an ideology of individualism which belies the forms of heteronomy that in fact shape and structure access to information online in significant ways. At the heart of this argument is an attention to the visual, and the significance of art as an immanent mode of analysis. Through the themes of transparency and opacity, and order and chaos, the article thus proposes a defining dynamic between autonomy and automation as a model for understanding the contemporary subject. (shrink)

This study investigates the processes involved in the shaping of a society’s economic ethos. The discussion of ethics and economics has a very long history across multiple disciplines. The founder of modern economics, Adam Smith, likewise had a keen interest in this topic. However, with the development of economic science, scholarly assessment has shifted toward positive analysis while normative analysis has been left mainly to philosophers. By utilizing the newly developed morality of profit-making scale (MPM), the authors sought to understand (...) how respondents’ economic ethical worldview shifts over time. Specifically, we theorized that the news media’s copious negative coverage of the gasoline price crisis of 2006 would significantly impact individuals’ MPM worldview. The results show that respondents’ explicit attitudes toward MPM were significantly impacted. However, respondents’ more deeply held, implicit economic ethical worldview was only slightly impacted. The authors argue that only patient, long-term explanation and argumentation can permanently affect a society’s economic ethos. Implications and future research directions for business researchers are outlined. (shrink)

This study utilizes an exploratory research design to investigate the influence of historical socialism and communism on the shaping of a society's economic ethos. The discussion of ethics and economics has a very long history across multiple disciplines including the founder of modern economics, Adam Smith. However, with the growth of economic science, academic consideration has shifted toward positive analysis while normative analysis has been left mainly to philosophers. By utilizing the newly developed Morality of Profit-Making (MPM) scale, the authors (...) sought to understand how historical socialism and communism influences respondents' economic ethical worldview utilizing an exploratory research design. Data were collected from respondents in the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Slovakia, Serbia, Poland, and Hungary. (shrink)

The Expanse is propelled into action when James Holden does what is morally right. In our everyday world, the prospect of spending time in jail short circuits the need for moral reflection. Not so in the anarchic world of The Expanse. This chapter uses just war theory to explore the moral obligations that exist when the political order breaks down. Philosophy helps us develop a moral language for making choices and evaluating actions. Michael Walzer accounts for the compassionate behavior by (...) arguing that soldiers, through reflection, come to recognize the basic moral obligations that humans have toward one another. He discerns five philosophical principles that govern our judgments about “how to fight”—all of which suggest that, deep down, we don't really believe the old canard that “all's fair in love and war.”. (shrink)

Tammy A. Kinsey 'Let us Never Speak of It?: Edward S. Small's _Direct Theory_' _Film-Philosophy_, vol. 7 no. 51, December 2003.

Deep Brain Stimulation is an invasive device-based neuromodulation technique that allows the therapeutic direct stimulation of subcortical and deep cortical structures following the surgical placement of stimulating electrodes. DBS is approved by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration for the treatment of movement disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder, while new indications, including Major Depressive Disorder, are in experimental development. We report the case of a patient with MDD who received DBS to the ventral internal capsule and ventral striatum bilaterally and presented with (...) 2 weeks of voltage-dependent Tourette-like symptoms including brief transient episodes of abrupt-onset and progressively louder coprolalia and stuttered speech; tic-like motor behavior in his right arm and leg; rushes of anxiety, angry prosody, angry affect; and moderate amnesia without confusion. We describe the results of the inpatient neuropsychiatric workup leading to the diagnosis of iatrogenic voltage-dependent activation of cortico-subcortical circuits and discuss insights into the pathophysiology of Tourette as well as safety considerations raised by the case. (shrink)

Dem Beispiel Edmund Husserls folgend unternimmt M.-P. einen grosz angelegten Versuch, die Grundlagen der Sozialphilosophie philosophisch zu erhellen. Er verbindet dabei transzendentalphänomenologische, existenzialphilosophische und lebensphilosophische Denkmotive zu einer sehr persönlichen und ursprünglichen Synthese. Im Hinblick auf den schwierigen Charakter und die undurchsichtige Struktur seiner Ausführung wird zunächst eine Interpretation gegeben. M.-P. geht dialektisch vor. Seine These beruht auf seiner ausführlich entwicelten und sorgfältig dokumentierten Philosophie der menschlichen Leiblichkeit (vergi. Phänomenologie der Wahrnehmung übers, und eingeführt von RUDOLF BOEHM, Berlin 1966, S. (...) 1-396 ; vergi, auch WILLI MAIER : Das Problem der Leiblichkeit bei Jean-Paul Sartre und Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Tübingen 1964, S. 21-101). Diese steht im schroffen Gegensatz zur Cartesianischen Tradition. M.-P. zufolge ist die geistige Existenz eine fortwährende Inkarnation. Hieraus ergibt sich, dasz das Bewusztsein notwendigerweise einen Leib besitzt. Der Leib ist ferner weder Ding noch Bewusztsein ; er hat eine eigene, „dritte” Seinsweise. Eben daher verleiht der Leib mir Zugang zur Welt ; ja noch mehr : Leib und Welt sind genau aufeinander abgestimmt. -Schlieszlich ist der Leib Träger typischer Intentionen motorischer, wahrnehmender, expressiver, elementar-praktischer und sexueller Art. Kurzum die leibliche Existenz ist vital-unpersönlich, sie sichert lediglich das mundane Leben im allgemeinen ; sie ist die Vorbedingung und Grundlage aller Objektivierung, aller Reflexion, aller bewuszten Entscheidung. Doch ist es M.-P. zufolge möglich, unumgänglich von einem subjektiven Leib, einem Leib-Subjekt zu sprechen. Der vorpersönliche Leib und die persönliche geistige Existenz des Menschen sind dabei nicht sauber voneinander geschieden ; ihr Verhältnis darf auch nicht als ein statisches gedacht werden. Es ist vielmehr durch fluktuierende Übergänge in beide Richtungen gekennzeichnet. Höchst persönliche Akte sedimentieren, verwandeln sich in habituelle Erwerbe und Automatismen. Andererseits spielen derartige Habitualitäten in dem kulturellen, geistigen und persönlichen Leben des Menschen eine bedeutsame Rolle. Auf Grund dieser Voraussetzungen vermag M.-P. die Wahrnehmung des alter ego völlig anders zu beschreiben als Husserl. -Wenn mein Blick auf ein anderes Leib-Subjekt fällt, das handelt, dann empfangen alle Dinge, die das andere Subjekt umgeben, eine neue Bedeutung. Sie sind nunmehr das, was das Verhalten des Anderen aus ihnen macht. Eben deshalb sehen wir das andere Leib-Subjekt nie und nimmer als ein ausgedehntes Stück Materie an. Wir betrachten es auch nicht als einen Bestandteil der Welt. Das andere Leib-Subjekt ist vielmehr etwas, was mit der Welt umgeht, sie im Griff hat und auf sie einwirkt. So ist es erklärlich, dasz mein Leib, wenn er den Leib des Anderen wahrnimmt, darin eine vertraute Weise erkennt, sich mit den mundanen Dingen einzulassen. Er sieht in dem andern Leib ein Organ seiner eigenen möglichen Intentionen. Dieses Erkennen soll nun nach M.-P. zu einer Verschmelzung führen. So wie die Glieder meines Leibes ein System bilden, so bilden nunmehr mein Leib und der Leib des Anderen ein einziges Ganzes, das von einer einzigen namenlosen, vorpersönlichen Existenz bewohnt wird. Auf diese Weise ist die Koexistenz psychophysischer Subjekte erklärlich, nicht aber die von Mitmenschen. Doch scheint die Erhellung der letzteren keine Schwierigkeiten mehr zu bieten. Der Mitmensch ist ein Subjekt, das mit Kulturobjekten umzugehen weisz. Unter den Erzeugnissen der Kultur nun spielt die Sprache eine entscheidende Rolle. Im Dialog entwerfen ich und der Andere eine gemeinsame geistige Landschaft. Wir kommunizieren miteinander, weil wir eine gemeinschaftliche Welt besitzen. Die Antithese erinnert in mancherlei Hinsicht an die Existenzphilosophie Jean-Paul Sartre's. Mit der Einführung der subjektiven Leiblichkeit ist das Problem nicht gelöst, betont M.-P. Die Schwierigkeit ist darin gelegen, dasz das alter ego genau dieselben Ansprüche erhebt wie das ego. Ist das wahrnehende Ich ein im vollen Sinne persönliches Ich, dann kann es kein anderes persönliches Ich wahrnehmen. Ist es dagegen ein anonymes Subjekt, dann ist der Andere gleichfalls ein namenloser Organismus. Gehen wir von der letztgenannten Voraussetzung aus, dann nivellieren wir alles, was die Einmaligkeit und Einzigkeit persönlicher Existenz ausmacht. Die Unzulänglichkeit der These seigt sich, wenn wir versuchen, sie auf die Problematik des „cogito” anzuwenden. Das „cogito” legt Zeugnis von meiner individuellen Existenz ab. Zu meiner Existenz gehört ein „transzendentales Feld”, d. h. ein Bereich, warin sich alle Seiende in Objekte-für-mich verwandeln. Bevor wir ein affirmatives oder negatives Urteil über etwas fällen können, musz ich diesem Etwas einen „Platz” in meinem transzendentalen Feld zuerkannt haben. Dies gilt auch mit Bezug auf die Kommunikation und die kommunizierenden Wesen. Sie müssen gleichfalls cogita meines cogito's sein. Es gibt, versichert M.-P., einen erlebten Solipsismus der nicht transzendiert werden kann. Es ist auch nicht möglich, diesen Solipsismus durch die Einführung eines göttlichen ego aufzuheben, dessen geheime Wirksamkeit ich in mir selbst entdecke. Es ist wahr, dasz wir, ich und der andere, im Bezug auf ein überindividuelles göttliches Bewusztsein empirische Objekte wären. Wir wären dann beide den Blicken des unendlichen Zuschauers ausgesetzt ; keiner hätte dem andern gegenüber eine Vorrang. Doch hätte ich dann die Wirksamkeit des göttlichen Bewusztseins in mir infolge eines reflexiven Aktes entdeckt. Dies würde aber bedeuten, dasz ich, der ich nur Schatten bin, durch meine Erkenntnis die Fülle des Lichtes erhellt habe, die ich Gott nenne. Etwas Derartiges würde dem Wesen Gottes widersprechen. Die Antithese kann daher auch durch die Annahme eines unendlichen Bewusztseins nicht widerlegt werden. Die Negation der Negation. Inmitten der Welt begegne ich Anderen. Dies ist ein Phänomen, das sich nicht wegdisputieren läszt. Wenn solipsistische Philosophen von der volkommenen Einsamkeit des ego sprechen, dann musz betont werden, dasz selbst der Begriff der Einsamkeit einen Hinweis auf mögliche Andere enthält. Auch die Alternative : „Ich oder der Andere” ist unhaltbar. Das Denken und Formulieren der Alternative bringt ja bereits mit sich, dasz sowohl Ich wie der Andere implizite gesetzt werden. -Sartre's berühmte „ Dialektik des Blickes" besitzt nicht die Beweiskraft, die ihr vielfach zu erkannt wird. Es ist wahr, dasz der objektivierende Blick des Anderen, solange dieser tatenlos bleibt und sich nicht mitteilt, die Kommunikation zeitweilig suspendiert. Es genügt aber, dasz der Andere ein Wort spricht, um ihn der Kommunikation zugänglich zu machen. Die Antithese wäre unwiderlegbar, wenn ihre Voraussetzungen zuträfen, wenn es nur zwei Seinsweisen gäbe : das Subjekt-und das Objekt-sein, das bewuszte und das dingartige Sein, das Für-sich-und das An-sich-sein. Diese Voraussetzungen weist M.-P.ab. Er hat -einigermaszen im Anschlusz an Husserl -den Beweis dafür geliefert, dasz das wahrgenommene Ding immer als einem groszen Zusammenhang angehörig aufgefaszt wird, letztlich dem Zusammenhang einer Welt. Unser Sein zur Welt geht daher immer der Wahrnehmung von „ diesem" und „jenem” voran. Die Welt ist offenbar weder Subjekt noch Objekt, weder Bewusztsein noch Ding. Was im Bezug auf die natürlichen Welt festgestellt worden is, gilt auch von der sozialen Welt. Unser ursprüngliches Verstehen des Sozialen macht es uns erst möglich, objektivierende Urteile über Individuen und Gruppen zu fällen. -M.-P. illustriert dies an den Beispielen des Klassenbewusztseins und des Nationalbewusztseins. Weder Klasse noch Nation dürfen als ein Fatum betrachtet werden, das von auszen her über mich verhängt worden ist. Ebensowenig sind sie „Werte”, die ich als souveraine Freiheit in meiner Immanenz „gesetzt” habe. „Klasse” und „Nation” sind vielmehr bestimmte Formen der Koexistenz, die für menschliche Individuen einen Aufforderungscharakter besitzen. In ruhigen Zeiten gehen Reize von ihnen aus, die nur gelegentliche Reaktionen auslösen. Man ahnt, dasz es sie gibt, aber man weisz es nicht. In einer revolutionären Situation oder in der Stunde einer nationalen Katastrophe können sie aber Anlasz zu einer klassenbewuszten bezw. nationalbewuszten Stellungnahme geben. Was dann in der Form einer Wahl, einer Entscheidung, eines Bekentnissen in Erscheinung tritt, ist lediglich die ausdrückliche Bestätigung eines vorhergehenden stillschweigenden Engagements. In diesem Sinne bezeichnet M.-P. das Soziale als etwas, das nicht primär Objekt unseres Bewusztseins sondern eine Dimension unseres Existierens ist. Die Frage nach der Transzendenz. Sind M.-P. zufolge soziale Gebilde wie z. B. „Klasse” oder „Nation” bewutetseinstranszendente Realitäten oder bewusztseinsimmanente Inhalte ? -Es ist für M.-P. charakteristisch, dasz er diese Alternative ablehnt. Er wirft zwar das Problem der Transzendenz auf, aber er stellt es auf eine neuartige Weise. Transzendent nennt er diejenigen Phänomene, die mich übersteigen, die aber dennoch nur insoferne für mich sind, als ich sie erfasse und erlebe. Er illustriert jene Problematik an der Hand der Phänomene „Vergangenheit” und „Welt”. Die Vergangenheit ist für den Realisten eine Spur, die sich auf meiner Hirnrinde oder in meiner Pyche befindet. Für den Idealisten ist sie ein cogitatum, das ein transcendentaler Geist in meiner Innerlichkeit konstituiert. In beiden Fällen wäre die Vergangenheit Gegenwart. M.-P. zufolge hat es die Vergangenheit immer schon für mich gegeben, auch wenn ich sie nicht mittels thetischer Akte vergegenwärtigt habe. In analoger Weise ist die Welt allerdings das, was mich umringt, aber sie befaszt mich, auch ohne dasz ich mir davon reflexiv bewuszt werde. Sofern mein Bewusztsein ausdrücklich Zeugnis von ihr ablegt, musz ich die Welt immanent nennen. Sofern sk aber mein Leben bestimmt hat, bevor ich von ihr gewuszt habe, ist sie bewusztseinstranszendent. Dieselbe „negatio supposti” wendet M.-P. nun auch auf das alter ego an. Der Andere ist transzendent, denn sein Sein-für-mich kommt nicht durch irgendwelche intenþionale Leistungen - Analogieschlusz, Introjektion oder Einfühlung -zustande. Ich konstituiere den Anderen nicht, denn ich bin kein göttliches Bewusztsein. Er ist bei mir, bevor ich ausdrücklich kennende, strebende oder wertende Akte vollziehe. -Dennoch ist es wahr, dasz das alter ego der Andere in Bezug auf mich ist. Das könnte er nicht sein, wenn mein Bewusztsein sein Sein nicht bezeugte. Das Zeugnis meines Bewusztseins ist dabei die ausdrückliche Bekräftigung von etwas, das im Stillen bereits in mir lebte. Es ist jedoch erforderlich, damit der Andere mir wirklich gegenübersteht. Infolge dieser wesentlich notwendigen bewuszten Affirmation ist der Andere meinem Bewusztsein auch immanent. - Wenn M.-P. daher behauptet, dasz das alter ego sowohl transzendent als immanent ist, dann darf man das nicht als eine spielerische Ausflucht betrachten. Es bedeutet, dasz sich mein gesamtes Leben in einer Sphäre von Sozialität abspielt, und dasz diese Sphäre das bewuszte Beurteilen und Sich-Verhalten gegenüber sozialen Partnern erst möglich macht. Das transzendentale Motiv im Denken M. P.'s. Das Problem der Transzendenz stellt sich demnach bei M.-P. auf eine sehr besondere Weise : es ist die Frage nach der Seinsart eines Transzendenten, das nicht ohne weiteres Überstieg des Selbst und eines Immanenten, das nicht schlechthin Wohnen in dem Selbst ist. Überdies formuliert er das Problem nicht in statischen, sondern in dynamischen Ausdrücken und Begriffen. Wie kann ich „ Urpräsenz" sein, die jede Anwesenheit eines Anderen bei mir bedingt, und gleichzeitig „Entgegenwärtigung”, die mich entrückt, fragt er sich. -Die Lösung dieser für ihn entscheidende Frage sucht er in der Richtung einer Transzendentalphilosophie. Das Paradox der immanenten Transzendenz kann nur dann philosophisch begreiflicher werden, wenn etwas gefunden wird, das die beiden Pole : „ Mich” und „den Anderen” umspannt ; das den Gegensatz zwischen Innerlichkeit und Äuszerlichkeit aufhebt ; das Interiorität zur Äuszerlichkeit erweitert und die Exteriorität verinnerlicht. M.-P. führt zunächst einen einigermaszen veränderten Begriff der Subjektivität ein. Das Bewusztsein, das cogito, die Subjektivität ist ihm zufolge nicht ohne weiteres als Identität mit sich selbst, als Selbstanwesenheit, als Wohnen in sich selbst zu charakterisieren. Ja, die absolute Selbstanwesenheit wird in Wahrheit niemals vollkommen realisiert, da die Subjektivität gleichzeitig auch Gerichtet-sein auf den Andern, Offenstehen für die Welt und Sprung nach der Zukunft ist. Sofern nun die Subjektivität nicht starre, unveränderliche Identität sondern ek-statisches Sein beim Anderen ist, ist ihre Seinsweise keine andere als die der Temporalität. So wie die Zeit in jeder ihrer temporalen Ekstasen das zur Entfaltung bringt, was in der vorgehenden als Keim angelegt war, so ist auch die Subjektivität der Drang, das zum Ausdruck zu bringen, was bereits implizit in ihre gelebt hat. -Nach M.-P. ist es falsch zu behaupten, das Subjekt befinde sich „ in" der Zeit. Er betrachtet vielmehr Subjekt und Zeit als ein und dieselbe alles gründende Wirklichkeit. Damit hat er auch das Problem der immanenten Transzendenz seiner Lösung näher gebracht. Die Zeit ist ja einerseits Anwesen, Gegenwart, Urpräsenz ; andererseits ist sie Flusz, Entgegenwärtigung, Ekstase. Sie ist das „wahre Transzendentale”, der „Ursprung der Transzendenzen”. Damit ist auch klar, welche Rolle das transzendentale Motiv im Denken M. P.' s spielt. M.-P. befaszt sich nicht mit der Möglichkeit formaler apriorischer Prinzipien. Er entwirft auch keine Lehre von den konstituierenden Leistungen eines transzendentalen Bewusztseins. M.-P. glaubt, das „wahre Transzendentale”, das der Ursprung der Realitäten ist, in der Temporalität entdeckt zu haben. Im Lichte dieser Entdeckung meint M.-P. nun auch, das Rätsel des alter ego lösen zu können. Es ist wahr, dasz ein Bewusztsein das andere ausschlieszt. Mit der Temporalität ist es aber anders gestellt. Die Zeit ist ja das Transzendens schlechthin. Sie überfliegt alle Grenzen und überbrückt alle Abgründe. So wie meine Gegenwart einer Zukunft entgegenwächst, die ich nicht kenne und vielleicht nie kennen lernen werde, so öffnet sich eine Gegenwart auch der Gegenwart des Anderen, die mir unbekannt ist. Ich verstehe auf vorprädikative Weise, dasz im Anderen derselbe Drang derZeitungen am Werk ist wie in mir, und dieses Verständnis gestattet mir, in dem Anderen den möglichen geistigen Partner zu erkennen. Die Analyse und Interpretation der Sozialphilosophie M.-P. gibt dem Verfasser Anlasz zu einigen kritische Betrachtungen. Sie betreffen vier Denkmotive M.-P.' s : die vermeintliche Verschmelzung der psychophysischen Subjekte, seinen Begriff der Welt, seinen existenzphilosophischen und seinen transzendentalphilosophischen Ansatz. Gezeigt wird, dasz aus den beiden letztgenannten Ansätzen keine geeignete Grundlage für eine personale Sozialphilosophie zu gewinnen ist. (shrink)

SummaryThe purpose of this study is to re-assess Karl Barth's use of the Kierkegaardian “infinite qualitative distinction between God and man”. It juxtaposes Kierkegaard's qualitative dialectic and Karl Barth's own complementary dialectic respectively. Then it compares and contrasts their similarities and dissimilarities in various contexts that would lead us to a more balanced assessment of Barth's use of Kierkegaardian diastasis and a better understanding of the ultimate purpose for holding fast to the bipolar but relational God-man unity of the Incarnation. (...) In contrast to Hegelian synthesis, the article contends that the dynamics of the dialectics of Kierkegaard and Barth should be understood in the manner of a complementary synthesis of two opposites.ZusammenfassungDas Ziel dieser Studie besteht darin, erneut Karl Barths Gebrauch von Kierkegaards »unendlichem qualitativen Unterschied zwischen Gott und Mensch« zu untersuchen. Dafür stellt die Studie Kierkegaards qualitative Dialektik Barths eigener komplementärer Dialektik gegenüber. Dann vergleicht und kontrastiert sie ihre Ähnlichkeiten und Unähnlichkeiten in verschiedenen Kontexten. Das führt zu einer ausgewogeneren Beurteilung von Barths Gebrauch der Kierkegaardschen Diastase und zu einem besseren Verständnis desjenigen Zieles, das Barth dazu motiviert, an einer zweipoligen, aber relationalen gottmenschlichen Einheit der Inkarnation festzuhalten. Der Aufsatz hält fest, dass die Dynamik der Dialektik von Kierkegaard und Barth im Gegensatz zu der Synthese Hegels als komplementäre Synthese zweier Gegensätze verstanden werden sollte. (shrink)

The historical forces of war and migration impacted heavily on the disciplinary locations, practitioners, and structures of sexology and psychoanalysis that had developed in the first decades of the 20th century. By the late 1940s, the US was fast becoming the world centre of each of these prominent fields within the modern human sciences. During these years, the work of Alfred C. Kinsey and his team became synonymous with a distinctly North American brand of empirical sex research. This article (...) offers the most nuanced account to date of the shifting relationship between these two fields in the late 1940s to mid 1950s. It argues that this was more collaborative and mutually influential than previous historians have assumed, even as, following the publication of the first ‘Kinsey report’, tensions grew between the Indiana team and the conservative brand of psychoanalysis that by this stage dominated 1950s North American psychiatry. A keen sense of professional competitiveness accelerated the growing split between these two fields, as Kinsey’s team developed a distinctly modern, technologized brand of statistically oriented sexology that contrasted with the older patient case history, and assumed a very different approach to conservative analysts on ideas of homosexuality and ‘normal’ sexual behaviour. Yet this story of divergence is also tempered through consideration of other aspects of ‘situated knowledge’ such as religion and gender identity, even as accounts of cross-disciplinary competitiveness are expanded by contrasting Kinsey’s positions on psychoanalysis with those of contemporaries such as Harry Benjamin. (shrink)

This article addresses the history of sociological sex research and its reception in Sweden and Finland. It describes the background and implementation of the first study in Sweden in 1967, and how the methodology of this study was adopted in Finland in 1971. Both of these studies were followed up in the 1990s with surveys that documented the changes in sexuality, 1992 in Finland and 1996 in Sweden. As the studies were labelled ‘Kinsey studies’ of their respective countries, the (...) article examines the effect that the work of Alfred Kinsey's research group had on them. In particular, the article pays attention to the role of homosexuality in the studies and their reception, both in the mainstream media and in lesbian and gay organizations’ magazines. The article argues that, even though the studies recognized their position on the continuum of sex research stemming from Kinsey's work, they did not have a similar role in normalizing homosexuality. On the contrary, the studies showed diminishingly small numbers of homosexual respondents, even in the 1990s, when lesbian and gay rights were rapidly developing, and the studies were used to argue against equality and minority rights. (shrink)

There were three broad categories of academic responses to Alfred Kinsey’s Sexual Behavior in the Human Male : method; findings; and broader reflections on the book’s place in American social life and democracy. This article focuses primarily on archival academic responses to Kinsey’s work that appeared in the year following the book’s publication. Many academics agreed that some aspects of Kinsey’s method were flawed and that his interpretations sometimes overreached his raw data. Nonetheless, they also agreed that (...) no one else had gathered such a diverse sampling of interviewees whose behaviors Kinsey could use to create new interpretive models of human sexuality. As Kinsey’s research was deliberately interdisciplinary, his research and statistical methodologies began to catch on in the human sciences and to encourage academics and intellectuals to rethink their human science practices. As academics reflected on the volume’s larger meaning in American life, several of them thought it exemplified the worst American values while others saw the very existence of the Male volume as an excellent example of the ability of free citizens to pursue and to publish research on any topic. While members of the American intelligentsia championed the Male volume and its findings as democratic, the reception of Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, published at an intense moment of the cold war, was viewed as a communist threat to American security for revealing the sexual secrets of the public. (shrink)

From 1950 to 1952, statisticians W.G. Cochran, C.F. Mosteller, and J.W. Tukey reviewed A.C. Kinsey and colleagues’ methodology. Neither the history-and-philosophy of science literature nor contemporary theories of interdisciplinarity seem to offer a conceptual model that fits this forced interaction, which was characterized by significant power asymmetries and disagreements on multiple levels. The statisticians initially attempted to exclude all non-technical matters from their evaluation, but their political and personal investments interfered with this agenda. In the face of McCarthy’s witch (...) hunts, negotiations with Kinsey and his funding institutions became integral to the review group’s work. This paper analyzes the heavy burden of emotional and affective labor in this collaboration, the conflicts caused by competing visions of objectivity, and the uses of statistical knowledge to gain and sustain authority. Kinsey’s refusal to adopt the recommended probability sample damaged his already precarious position even further and marked him as a biased researcher who put his personal agenda above methodological rigor. Kinsey’s uncooperative demeanor can be explained by distrust resulting from numerous adverse reactions to his work and by fear of having his sexuality exposed. This case study illustrates that the very concept of valid numbers can become an arena for power struggles and that quantification alone does not guarantee productive exchanges across disciplines. It calls for a deeper conceptual analysis of the prerequisites for successful scientific collaborations. (shrink)

The role of Alfred Kinsey, America's most influential sexologist, in the cultural revolution of sex and gender during the past fifty years remains as unquestionable as it has been controversial. This admiring biography argues that Kinsey also qualifies as an authentic great man of science in the tradition of Darwin. Kinsey's expert authority was recently challenged by James Jones, who claimed in his 1997 biography that Kinsey's terrible personal secrets—homosexuality and masochism—plagued his life and ruined his (...) science. Jonathan Gathorne‐Hardy sets out to repair Kinsey's reputation by defending him against this “Kenneth Starr school of biography” . The author seeks to rescue Kinsey's achievement from the stigmatizing charge that it was flawed because it subordinated science to subjectivity.Gathorne‐Hardy emphasizes Kinsey's methodological creativity and his interviewing genius. During his early career, when he worked on gall wasps, Kinsey's science developed as a practice of scrupulous collection, observation, and documentation. Even in graduate school, he was dubbed “get a million Kinsey,” and his belief in sheer quantity—as well as quantification—was just as apparent when he turned his attention to human sexuality. In 1938 Kinsey taught a course on marriage at Indiana University, where he spent his entire working life. Limited to married or engaged students and faculty, the course covered reproductive physiology, contraception, and a host of other sexual topics in explicit detail. Kinsey also used the course to gather data about his students' sex lives. The thousands of sexual histories collected at the Institute for Sex Research in later years—7,985 by Kinsey alone—attest to his scientific commitment to behavior as the only legitimate basis for a science of sex.The behavioral unit of analysis chosen by Kinsey was the orgasm—or “outlet,” as Kinsey called it. Because it was countable, the theory went, it was objective. Kinsey's ethic of measurement resulted in interviews involving at least 350 standard questions, whose answers were recorded in a custom code designed to fit on a single sheet of paper divided into 287 squares. Among the ironies of Kinsey's method was the fact that his sex histories measured linguistic rather than sexual behavior. What Kinsey actually compiled was a huge cache of stories, not direct observations of sexual behavior. Kinsey, who gathered more sexual stories than any other person alive, systematically aimed to eradicate all quirks and complexities in order to produce a statistical portrait of population‐wide behavior. Meanings might be historically important, but numbers, not narratives, would yield truth. The easy use of “human males” and “human females” in the titles of Kinsey's famous reports suggests how universal his scientific claims were—and also how devoid of temporal and cultural particularity.The resulting conception of human sexual nature is probably best represented in Kinsey's six‐point scale, where behavioral possibilities ranged from exclusively homosexual at one pole to exclusively heterosexual at the other. Diversity emerged as the premier fact about sexual behavior. While this placed men and women uncomfortably close to their primate cousins on an evolutionary map, making human sexual exceptionalism objectively unsustainable, it also produced a reformist sensibility that rooted its demand for toleration in the powerful evidence of natural facts. It is difficult to overstate how shocking Kinsey's picture of polymorphous sexuality was in a culture devoted to either/or binaries and prone to harsh judgments about deviation from norms. Kinsey's contribution was to point out the gap between ideology and behavior . That lots of people did lots of things at odds with professed sexual morality was, for some, a welcome relief and call to revolution. For others, it was a reason to hate Kinsey and blame him for changes in the realm of gender and sexuality already well under way by midcentury.No biographies can save scientific heroes from the fatal charge that their methods and findings were bound up in their lives, or they would not be biographies worth reading. This attests to the stubborn endurance of the psychoanalytic paradigm. Kinsey despised Freud for passing off philosophy as science. Yet because of the conventions of post‐Freudian biography, Gathorne‐Hardy must explore exactly those dimensions of Kinsey's life and character that Freud embraced but that Kinsey himself would never have admitted into the precincts of science. His childhood illnesses and struggles with an overbearing father, his rage against religion, fondness for music, charismatic yet autocratic style, and his own anguished sexuality are keys to puzzling out not only a life in science, but a life.Gathorne‐Hardy can hardly ignore evidence that Kinsey's own sexual appetites were diverse—“bisexual” is this author's preferred designation—or that his enterprise in sex research involved experimentation: the mostly married male members of Kinsey's team were expected to engage in sexual activities with one another and one another's wives. Kinsey's wife Clara was a confidant and supporter from the start. Their loving marriage was also an open marriage. Mac was a participant‐observer in the world of sex research. She had a series of affairs with Kinsey's colleagues and even changed the bedsheets during energetic sessions of sexual cinematography that took place in the attic of their home. Yet the Kinseys also shielded their children from their own unorthodox sexual practices.This biography concludes by suggesting that Kinsey died tragically in 1957, convinced that his enemies had the upper hand. Kinsey was wrong. The diversity he championed has become a theoretical staple in the human and life sciences as well as a practical goal in social policies related to gender, race, and sexuality. However unfinished it may be, it is difficult to imagine Kinsey's revolution being reversed in either science or society. (shrink)

It is commonplace to point out that Alfred Kinsey's taxonomic work on gall wasps provided a methodology for his studies of human sexual behavior. It is equally commonplace to point out that, when researching and presenting his sexual studies, Kinsey's professedly neutral scientific data were constrained by a social agenda. What I have done in this paper is to join these two claims and demonstrate, with particular reference to Kinsey's Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, how his (...) zoology helped guide Kinsey to a naturalistic ethics that, despite contrasts to, shared certain parallel logical failures with the traditional ethics of his critics. (shrink)

This article describes a rhetorical characteristic of Kierkegaard’s thirteen Discourses “at the Communion” on Fridays, namely, their way of expressing religious truths, theological distinctions, and homiletic statements by a certain concept of space, place and movement, thus making them existentially accessible. It illustrates the fundamental meaning of this series of discourses and especially the last discourse for Kierkegaard’s entire work as an author. By focussing on the topological categories and correlations in the last discourse, the article demonstrates the constitutive role (...) of spatial terms and meanings and so discovers the theological topology of the series as a whole with its coincidences of soteriological, anthropological, liturgical, rhetorical, and existential movements—leading the listener/reader to the “place of rest at the foot of the altar.”. (shrink)

Although there have long been protective arrangements to safeguard diplomats and embassies abroad—notably norms and guarantees codified in multilateral treaties, such as the 1969 UN Convention on S...

On the one hand, Scheler's critique of Kant's concept of a priori benefits from Husserl to a large extent, and it complements and deepens Husserl's. On the other hand, Scheler also critiques Husserl's definition of a priori. Husserl's material a priori as ideal object primarily thanks to his so-called "Bolzano- turn". In this connection, Scheler grabs hold of the relation of Husserl to Bolzano from the very beginning. For Scheler, Husserl thinks in a "platonic" way, and still falls in a (...) new type of "Platonism", or rather, logical Platonism, although he correctly refuses the ordinary Platonism. In Scheler's view, Husserl's phenomenological reduction is "not purely" executed, and therefore his phenomenological experience is problematic, or more precisely, the relation between categorial intuition and sensuous intuition is problematic. The final aim of Scheler's critique of Husserl's phenomenological understanding of "objective a priori" is to win the primary position of categorial intuition and its content , ethical insight and its correlate , and ultimately of phenomenological ethics of material value.Einerseits nimmt Schelers Kritik an Kant bezüglich des Begriffs des Apriori die Einsichten Husserls in großem Umfang auf. Schelers Kritik an Kant ergänzt und vertieft die Husserlsche Kant-Kritik. Andererseits kritisiert er aber auch Husserls Bestimmung des Apriori. Vor allem verdankt sich das materiale Apriori als idealer Gegenstand bei Husserl der sogenannten “Bolzano’schen Wendung”. Von Anfang an kritisiert Scheler Husserl in diesem Punkt, indem er dem Verhältnis zwischen Bolzano und Husserl immer präziser nachging. Für Scheler unterliegt Husserl mit Recht keinem platten Platonismus. Aber dennoch verfahre Husserl immerhin “platonistisch”, er unterliege einem “Neoplatonismus”, bzw. einem logischen Platonismus. Weil die phänomenologische Reduktion bei Husserl nach Schelers Meinung “nicht reinlich” durchgeführt wird, ist die phänomenologische Erfahrung bei Husserl problematisch, genauer gesagt ist das Verhältnis zwischen der kategorialen Anschauung und der sinnlichen Anschauung problematisch. Der Endzweck von Schelers Kritik an der phänomenologischen Auffassung des gegenständlichen Apriori bei Husserl besteht darin, die primäre Stelle der kategorialen Anschauung und ihrer Gehalte , sowie der sittlichen Einsicht und ihrer Korrelate und zuletzt der phänomenologisch materialen Wertethik zu gewinnen.S jedne strane, Schelerova kritika Kantova pojma a priori u velikoj mjeri duguje Husserlu, te dopunjuje i produbljuje Husserlovu. S druge strane, Scheler kritizira i Husserlovu definiciju apriorija. Husserlov materijalni a priori kao idealni predmet prvenstveno proizlazi iz njegova takozvanog bolzanovskog obrata. Prema Scheleru, Husserl razmišlja na "platonski" način te upada u novi tip "platonizma" ili, točnije, logičkog platonizma, iako s pravom odbacuje obični platonizam. Scheler smatra da Husserlova fenomenološka redukcija nije izvedena "čisto" te da je stoga njegovo fenomenološko iskustvo proble- matično ili, točnije, problematičan je odnos između kategorijalnog zora i osjetilnog zora. Krajnji cilj Schelerove kritike Husserlova fenomenološkog shvaćanja "objektivnog a priori" jest zadobivanje primarne pozicije kategorijalnog zora i njegova sadržaja , etičkog uvida i njegova korelata te, na koncu, fenomenološke etike materijalne vrijednosti. (shrink)